musicgalaxy

Improvisation in music therapy - music therapy

Thu, 25 Feb 2010 08:45:51 +0100

Improvisation in music therapy

In music therapy improvisation is defined as a process where the client and therapist relate to each other. The client makes up music, musical improvisation, while singing or playing, extemporaneously creating a melody, rhythm, song, or instrumental piece. In clinical improvisation, client and therapist (or client and other clients) relate to one another through the music. Improvisation may occur individually, in a duet, or in a group. The client may use any musical or nonmusical medium within his or her capabilities. Musical media includes voice, body sound, percussion, and string, wind, and keyboard instruments. Nonmusical media can consist of images, titles, and stories.

How improvisation fits into music therapy

Music therapy is a systematic process; it is not a series of random events. Systematic means that music therapy is "purposeful, organized, methodical, knowledge-based, and regulated" (Bruscia 1998). One of the most important features is its methodical processes. Methodical means that music therapy always proceeds in an orderly fashion. It involves three basic steps: assessment, treatment, and evaluation. Treatment is the part of a music therapy process in which the therapist engages the client in various musical experiences, employing specific methods and techniques. When planning treatment, the music therapist has to select the types of music and musical experiences that will be most relevant to the client. There are four basic types of musical experiences: listening, re-creating, composition, and improvisation.

Characteristics of improvisation in music therapy

Improvisation is a generative and creative process of musical intervention. It helps the client to explore aspects of self, in relation to others, in an appropriate way. Improvisation also generates new and individualized musical forms. Using musical improvisation in a therapeutic setting can increase independence. The interactive use of improvisation facilitates problem-solving, because it is flexible rather than predetermined. Getting the client involved in an improvisational activity can develop social skills and interaction. Improvisation exists in real time and can be effectively used with academic areas and other creative arts (Gardstrom 2001, 83).

Clinical goals of improvisation experiences

According to Bruscia (1998), clinical goals that can be achieved through improvisation are as follows:

Establish a nonverbal channel of communication, and a bridge to verbal communication
Provide a fulfilling means of self-expression and identity formation
Explore various aspects of self in relation to others
Develop the capacity for interpersonal intimacy
Develop group skills
Develop creativity, expressive freedom, and playfulness with various degrees of structure
Stimulate and develop the senses
Play, on the spot, with a decisiveness that invites clarity of intention
Develop perceptual and cognitive skills

Improvisational methods and their variations

Improvisation can be carried out with both musical and nonmusical references. (Bruscia 1987, 10)

Referential improvisations are those in which the client improvises to portray a nonmusical reference (e.g., an event, feeling, image, relationship, etc.)
Non-referential improvisations are those in which the client improvises without reference to anything other than the sounds or music.
Frequently used variations are as follows:

Variations	Explanations
Instrumental referential	creating music on a musical instrument according to a given reference
Instrumental non-referential	creating music on a musical instrument without reference
Song improvisation	creating lyrics, melody, and accompaniment to a song
Vocal non-referential	creating a vocal piece without words or images
Body improvisation	creating various kinds of body sounds
Mixed media	creating a piece with any combination of instrumental, vocal, or body sounds
Conducted improvisation	creating a piece by giving directive cues to one or more improvisers

Basic therapeutic techniques

Bruscia (1987) and Wigram (2004) introduced a variety of improvisational techniques and methods in their books. Among these, there are a few major therapeutic techniques for improvisation. Imitating is a basic technique of empathy in which the music therapist copies or repeats a client's response, after the response has been displayed. The music therapist focuses on any sound, rhythm, interval or even facial expression. Reflecting is a technique in which the music therapist expresses the same moods or feelings which have been presented by the client. Rhythmic grounding is implemented by establishing a steady beat or rhythm, supporting the client's improvisation. The use of a rhythmic ostinato is an example of rhythmic grounding. Dialoguing is a process in which the music therapist and the client communicate through their improvisations. Lastly, accompanying is a technique in which the music therapist supports the client's improvisation by giving an accompaniment that consists of rhythm, melody, and chord progressions.

Integration of therapeutic methods

It is important to have variety in music therapy sessions. Improvisation should be conducted using more than just one or two methods and techniques. It is also critical to maintain flexibility during the improvisation. For example, the music therapist can preserve a flexible session flow by incorporating several methods, such as imitating, accompanying, dialoguing, and rhythmic grounding.

Rare Musical Instruments - Music

Thu, 25 Feb 2010 08:35:52 +0100

Rare Musical Instruments

1.Tronichord

A mid-1980s Tronichord

The Tronichord is a rare electronic musical instrument manufactured by Suzuki Musical Instrument Corporation of Japan in the early and mid-1980s.^[1] A precursor to the larger and more complex Omnichord and QChord series of instruments by the same maker, the Tronichord was designed in large part for ease of use. The packaging included the slogan, "Sound like a pro—make music instantly, your very first time!"^[2]

The instrument is played in much the same way as an acoustic autoharp. The player touches one of a set of touch-sensitive areas on the unit's front plate to select a chord, which then sounds as a drone with level set according to the "Chord Volume" knob on the left side.

Sweeping a finger along the touch-sensitive strip along the bottom edge strums notes from the currently-selected chord. The volume of the strumming is set using the "Sonic Strings Volume" knob at the lower left.^[3] This knob also turns the unit on and off. The "Instant Off" touch pad silences the output until another chord is selected.

The unit is powered either by an external 12VDC adapter, or internally from eight AA batteries. Audio output is from a loudspeaker built into the case behind the "Tronichord" logo, or via a standard 1/4" jack on the left side of the unit suitable for a guitar cable. A trimpot for tuning the instrument's pitch is accessible on the rear of the unit through a recessed opening.

Tronichord Players

Martin Gore of Depeche Mode played one in studio for a segment in the song, "Wrong."^[4]
Kathryn Stevenson of KSProductions has used the instrument in music-oriented therapy for developmentally disabled children and adults.^[5]
Native Instruments's Kontakt audio sampling software includes Tronichord samples in its samples library.^[6]

References

^ Suzuki Tronicord. Miniorgan.com. Retrieved August 17, 2009.
^ Suzuki Tronicord Packaging. Miniorgan.com. Retrieved August 17, 2009.
^ Suzuki Tronicord - control closeup. Miniorgan.com. Retrieved August 17, 2009.
^ Suzuki Tronichord. Matrixsynth: Everything Synth 11 March 2007. Retrieved 17 August 2009.
^ Play Tronichord. KSProductions. Retrieved 17 August 2009.
^ Native Instruments Kontakt 3. Sound on Sound Magazine. January 2008. Retrieved 17 August 2009.

2. Sursingar

The sursingar (IAST: sursiṅgār) is a rare musical instrument played in Northern India. It is a lute-derived Sarod, except it is larger in size and produces a deeper sound. It is a distant descendant of the Saraswati Veena. It precedes the Sarod chronologically.

Construction

The main body is made of wood and not leather (the material used in earlier instruments). The sound producing mechanism of the instrument is formed by a gourd. The gourd is attached to a hollow wooden handle. The handle is sometimes covered with a metal plate to facilitate the glissando. It has four main strings and four rhythmic drones (chikari). The strings are usually made of brass (instead of catgut used in earlier instruments). These modifications resulted in the increase of resonance in the instrument and thereby in its popularity.

The instrument is supported by the left shoulder, as the Veena and is played with a plectrum (mezrab) or tab (and sometimes with a bow). It is used to play music in the Hindustani style Dhrupad.

Noted performers

Baba Allauddin Khan had a few recordings as possibly did Pandit Radhika Mohan Maitra.

3. Fiddlesticks (musical instrument)

The Cantrells (Al and Emily Cantrell) playing fiddlesticks

Cajun fiddler Dewey Balfa, with his nephew Todd Balfa playing fiddlesticks, c. 1983

Ira Bernstein playing fiddlesticks with Riley Baugus

4. Hydraulophone

A hydraulophone is a tonal acoustic musical instrument that is played by direct physical contact with hydraulic fluid (usually water) in which sound is generated or affected hydraulically^[1]^[2]. Typically the sound is produced by the same hydraulic fluid that is in direct contact with the player's fingers^[3]. The term has also been used to refer to an acoustic sound-producing mechanism that is used as an interface or input device involving the monitoring of fluid flow. Examples include hydraulophones for fluid-flow monitoring and measurement applications, such as building automation, equipment monitoring, and the like (e.g. determining which faucet or toilet in a building is operating and how much water it is consuming)^[4]. The hydraulophone in the first sense was invented and named by Professor Steve Mann.


Other instrument

Other names	Woodwater instrument
Classification	Water Woodwater Reedless Single-reed Double-reed
Hornbostel-Sachs classification	NaN (Hydraulophone)
Playing range
Basic range of a diatonic hydraulophone with 12 water jets: More detailed ranges and compasses appear below.
Related instruments
Flute Glass harmonica Pipe organ
Musicians
Hydraulists

Waterflute (reedless) hydraulophone with 45 finger-embouchure holes, allowing an intricate but polyphonic embouchure-like control by inserting one finger into each of several of the instrument's 45 mouths at the same time.

Types of hydraulophone and basic operation

This article concerns itself with hydraulophones that are musical instruments, or sound sculptures.

The term may be applied based on the interface used to play the instrument, in which a player blocks the flow of water through a particular hole in order to sound a particular note, or based on a hydraulic sound production mechanism. Hydraulophones work using various sound production mechanisms involving water flow, and what they share in common is the user-interface (blocking water jets to produce sound). Those described in ^[2] use water jets striking perforated spinning disks, shafts, or valves, to create a pulsating water flow, similar to a siren disk. A single disk, shaft, or valve assembly can have rings or passages with different numbers of holes for different notes. Some hydraulophones have reeds (one or more reed for each finger hole) and some are reedless, having one or more fipple mechanism ^[2] associated with each finger hole, thus having no moving parts to wear out.

Blocking flow through a fingerhole directs the water instead to one or more of the above-described sound-production mechanisms, or resulting changes in flow or pressure affect a separate sounding mechanism associated with each finger hole^[2].

Some hydraulophones include an underwater hydrophone pickup to allow the sounds produced by the water to be electrically amplified, whereas others do not use electric amplification. The use of electric amplification also allows various effects to be added, as with an electric guitar, as well as the possibility of making the hydraulophone function as a hyper-acoustic instrument (i.e. using computation to change the acoustic sound of the water into some other instrument)^[5].

Relationship to woodwind instruments

The hydraulophone is similar to a woodwind instrument, but it runs on incompressible (or less compressible) fluid rather than a compressible gas like air. In this context hydraulophones are sometimes called "woodwater" instruments regardless of whether or not they are made of wood (as woodwind instruments are also often not made of wood).

Hydraulophone embouchure

Since humans do not breathe water, the water must be "blown" into the hydraulophone by way of a pump which can be hand-operated, wind operated, water powered, or electric. Unlike woodwind instruments in which there is one mouthpiece at the entrance to the flute chamber, hydraulophones have mouthpieces at every exit port from the chamber.

Whereas internal ducted flutes have one fipple mechanism for the mouth of the player, along with several finger holes that share the one fipple mechanism, the hydraulophone has a separate mouth/mouthpiece for each finger hole. A typical park-hydraulophone for installation in public spaces has 12 mouths, whereas a concert hydraulophone typically has 45 mouths.

Embouchure is controlled by way of the instrument's mouths, not the player's mouth such that the player can sing along with the hydraulophone (i.e. a player can sing and play the instrument at the same time). Moreover, the instrument provides the unique capability of polyphonic embouchure, where a player can dynamically "sculpt" each note by the shape and position of each finger inserted into each of the mouths. For example, the sound is different when fingering the center of a water jet than when fingering the water jet near the periphery of the circular mouth's opening.

12-jet diatonic hydraulophones

Many diatonic hydraulophones are built with 12 water jets, one for each of the 12 notes. The standard compass starts on A, extending up an octave and a half to E. We say 1 1/2 octaves in the sense that the high E has a frequency that is (2 * 1.5 = 3) times as large as that of the low A, ie. an octave (8va) plus a perfect fifth (P5) higher.

Extended playing ranges for a diatonic 12-water-jet hydraulophone

The standard A to E range, in which it is possible to play with polyphonic embouchure on any or all diatonic notes at the same time, is shown on the left side of the diagram. When playing only monophonically, some additional range is possible on certain hydraulophones, indicated here by small cue notes at the end-points.

Left, the extended notes come from closing key change valves or flexing key change levers, for sharpener, and flattener. To play a low G, one must be playing in C minor (with Ab) and close the flattener valve simultaneously. When playing on the high E jet, closing the sharpener valve produces an F.

With change-valves, the diatonic hydraulophone is polyphonic in the same sense as a so-called "chromatic harmonica" --- you can play chords and move all members of a chord down one semitone or up one semitone together, but the function of the valves is usually not separated to work on a per-note basis, so for example, you can play an A-minor chord, and flex the entire chord down to A-flat minor, but you can't easily play an A major chord without the use of polyphonic embouchure to bend only the middle note to a C# (which requires more skill than the average hydraulist has). Thus the "diatonic" hydraulophone is called "diatonic" conservatively to "under promise and over-deliver".

Finally, on the right, the additional extended range comes from the two octave-change valves (all notes can be shifted as many as two octaves down, or one octave up).

45-jet chromatic hydraulophones (concert hydraulophones)

Playing range of a 45-jet hydraulophone

Whereas park and pool hydraulophones are usually 12-jet diatonic, concert-hydraulophones are usually 45-jet chromatic.

45-jet hydraulophones have a 3 1/2 octave range of A to E, chromatic, plus an additional A-flat below the lowest A. The playing compass (45 water jets) is the same as the sounding range (45 notes).

Usually only 12-jet hydraulophones are installed in public spaces, but the rare exception is the 45-jet south hydraulophone at the Ontario Science Centre which is a concert-hydraulophone having this precise range/compass. It is available to any member of the public, for use, free of any admission fees or other cost, and it runs 24 hours a day.

Cold weather hydraulophones

Hydraulists performing for Canada's National Capital Commission in Ottawa, at Winterlude 2010, on a hydraulophone built into a SpaBerry

Hydraulist performing for Canada's National Capital Commission in Ottawa, at Winterlude 2010, during a daytime winter concert.

Hydraulophones may be built into hot tubs for use in cold weather. This solves the problem of keeping the hydraulist warm, as well as keeping the hydraulic fluid (e.g. water) heated by way of standard pumping and heating equipment. In this kind of hydraulophone (e.g. balnaphone, from the Greek "balnea" meaning "bath") the hydraulist is immersed in the hydraulic fluid used by the instrument.

Relationship to other musical instruments in the orchestra

Musical instrument classification by physics-based organology

The hydraulophone does not fit into any standard musical instrument classifications scheme that was in existence before the invention of the hydraulophone. In order to try to relate the Hydraulophone to other instruments, a physics-based organology has been introduced, subsequent to the invention of the hydraulophone. In this scheme, the top-level category of classification is the state-of-matter of that which initially produces the sound in the instrument.^[6]

The first three-categories of the Hornbostel Sachs system fall under the first category of the physical organology system, as they all produce sound from matter in its solid state.

This physical organology is as follows:

1 Gaiaphones (Earth/Solid), instruments in which the initial sound-production medium is by matter in its solid-state, e.g. the piano.
- 1.1 Chordophones: sound produced by solids that are essentially 1-dimensional (having a cross-section much smaller than their length, i.e. strings), e.g. violin, guitar, electric guitar, electric bass, etc.;
- 1.2 Membranophones: sound produced by solids that are essentially 2-dimensional (much thinner than their surface area) membranes, e.g. drums;
- 1.3 Idiophones: sound produced by bulk 3-dimensional solid matter, e.g. crystallophone, glass harmonica, xylophone, metallophone, etc., regardless of whether the instrument is operated underwater or in air;
2 Hydraulophones (Water/Liquid): sound produced by matter in its liquid state; instrument itself may be played underwater or played in a surrounding medium of air, with water supplied only to the internal workings of the instrument:
- 2.0 Waterflutes (reedless hydraulophones);
- 2.1 Single-reed hydraulophones (typically having 1 reed for each finger hole);
- 2.2 Double-reed hydraulophones (typically having 2 reeds for each finger hole);
- 2.3 Polyreed hydraulophones (typically having 3 or more reeds for each finger hole);
3 Aerophones (Air/Gas): sound produced by matter in its gaseous state, e.g. woodwind instruments and brass instruments;
4 Plasmaphones/Ionophones (Fire/Plasma): sound produced by matter in a high-energy state such as plasma, e.g. plasmaphone, etc.;
5 Quintephones (Quintessence/Idea): sound produced informatically, by electrical, optical, mechanical, or other computational/algorithmic means.^[6]

Classifications based on surrounding media

Solid, Liquid, and Gas (left-to-right) instruments, all three immersed in Liquid. The immersional (surrounding) media does not dictate the primary top-level musical instrument classification, although it greatly changes the sound (i.e. dampens the guitar without changing the fact it is a chordophone, and silences the recorder).

At the International Computer Music Conference in 2007, the conference theme was Immersed Music and featured some immersed performances and concerts. This raised some important questions regarding the role of the surrounding medium (air or water) in which a musical instrument is played, as well as the role of water in other non-hydraulophonic instruments.

For example, Benjamin Franklin's glass (h)armonica remains a friction idiophone regardless of the fact that it is played by wet fingers. A version of the armonica designed to be played underwater was recently created. This version is still a friction idiophone, not a hydraulophone.

Likewise, arrays of drinking glasses tuned with water are still idiophones, as the water is not what produces the initial sound, but is merely a tuning element.

Relationship between hydraulophone and the "strings, percussion, wind" taxonomy

Traditionally the orchestra is divided into three sections, strings, percussion, and wind. With strings and percussion instruments, the sound is produced by matter in its solid state, as for example, with a piano (which is both a string and a percussion instrument). With wind instruments sound is produced by matter in its gaseous state.

Hydraulophones add a new category of instruments in which sound is produced by water, unlike previously known instruments like the glass harmonica and the crystallophone which are idiophones that merely use the water to tune them or to enhance the friction. For example, the glass (h)armonica is a friction idiophone in which sound is produced by solid matter (glass), not liquid, even though liquid (water) is often present on the fingers of the armonist. The crystallophone is also an idiophone, in which water is used to change the tuning, but not to produce the actual sound. Thus hydraulophones form a unique class of instruments in which sound is actually produced by the water itself.

Relationship to the pipe organ

Many hydraulophones include a separate water-filled pipe for each note, and have sound-production means similar to pipe organs (but with water rather than air), while maintaining the flutelike user-interface (finger embouchure holes).

This form of hydraulophone is similar to an organ, but has water flowing through the pipes instead of air flowing through the pipes.

Relationship to the piano

On a concert hydraulophone, the finger holes are arranged like the keys on a piano, i.e. there is a row of uniformly spaced holes close to the player, and a row of holes that are in groups of 2, 3, 2, 3, ..., a little further from the player. Whereas the piano and organ both have a similar kind of keyboard layout, the response ("key action") is different. Pianos tend to respond to velocity (how quickly a key is struck), whereas organs tend to respond to displacement (whether or not a key is pressed down). Hydraulophones tend to respond to absement (the time-integral of displacement), as well as to displacement, velocity, and to some degree jerk and jounce[1].

Relationship to instruments that use other states of H₂O

Pagophone uses H₂O in its solid state (i.e. ice), in contrast to the hydraulophone which typically uses H₂O in its liquid state (i.e. water)

The hydraulophone uses liquid, typically water, H₂O. It is thus related to the pagophone, an instrument that uses H₂O in its solid state (i.e. ice), and the calliope, an instrument that uses H₂O in its gaseous state (steam).

World's largest hydraulophone

World's largest outdoor hydraulophone that's publicly accessible 24 hours-a-day

Presently the world's largest hydraulophone is the main architectural centerpiece out in front of the Ontario Science Centre, one of Canada's landmark architecture sites. It is also Toronto's only freely accessible aquatic play facility that runs 24 hours a day.

Markings on standard 12-jet hydraulophone

Braille markings above finger holes on a classroom hydraulophone used for teaching visually impaired students. The letter "L" denotes jet number 12 (rightmost in the sequence of 12 water jets).

Because the water-spray from hydraulophones obscures vision (or because hydraulophones are played underwater where visibility is poor), finger holes are sometimes encoded in Braille. Braille has the added advantage that the one-to-one correspondence between letters and numbers is the same as the standard A-minor hydraulophone, i.e. jet 1 is A, jet 2 is B, jet 3 is C, etc.. The skill (intricate sense of tactility) needed to play a hydraulophone well is also similar to the skill needed to read Braille.

(12 sets of dots typically made from brass pins above each finger hole)

Manufacturers

Hydraulophones are currently manufactured by:

WhiteWater West in British Columbia, manufacturers of the AquaTune cylindrical-bore hydraulophone, and of the "Nessie" tapered-bore instrument;
SCS Interactive, in Ogden, UT (business offices in Denver CO), manfacturers of the tapered-bore instrument called the "Hydrophone";
FUNtain Corporation in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, manufacturers of a wide variety of hydraulophones and hydraulophone-related products.

References and notes

^ "Fluid Melodies: The hydraulophones of Professor Steve Mann" In WaterShapes, Volume 10, Number 2, Pp36-44, New York, NY, USA
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Mann, S. Hydraulophone design considerations: absement, displacement, and velocity-sensitive music keyboard in which each key is a water jet, International Multimedia Conference archive, Proceedings of 14th annual ACM international conference on Multimedia, Pp 519-528, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
^ Mann, S. flUId Streams: Fountains that are keyboards with nozzle spray as keys..., Proceedings of ACM Multimedia 2005, Pp. 181-190, Singapore
^ Janzen, R. and Mann, S. Arrays of water jets as user interfaces: Detection and estimation of flow by listening to turbulence signatures using hydrophones. Proceedings of the 15th International Conference on Multimedia, Pp. 505-508, Augsburg, Germany, 2007
^ The Electric Hydraulophone: An acoustic hyperinstrument with feedback, International Computer Music Conference, Pp. 162, Copenhagen, Denmark
^ ^a ^b Natural Interfaces for Musical Expression: Physiphones and a physics-based organology, in Proceedings of the 2007 Conference on New Interfaces for Musical Expression (NIME07), Pages 118-123, New York, NY, USA

5. Quray (flute)


Related instruments
Other names	Kurai,Kuray,Koray,Qurai
Classification	woodwind instrument
Ney - a similar Persian instrument Flute Jedinka Dilli Kaval Shvi Frula Murgu Kurai Kawala

The quray ([quˈrɑɪ], Bashkir ҡурай, Tatar Cyrillic: курай, Latin: quray) is a long open endblown flute with five fingerholes, and is the national instrument of the Bashkirs.

The quray is the best known and most popular musical instrument of the Bashkir people. The Bashkir folk tune "The singing cranes", performed only with the quray, has more than one thousand years of history.

The most wide spread kind of quray is a quray made from the stem of the umbelliferous plant, called urals edgepistil or Kamchatka pleurospermum (Pleurospermum uralense). The stem of a quray is 2-3 meters long. It flowers in July, then dries out in August-September. It is cut in September and kept it in a dry and dark place. The length is found by measuring 8-10 times the width of a palm encompassing the stem of a plant. The first hole must be done at four fingers distance from the top of the plant, the next three holes at two fingers distance from each other, the fifth at the back at three fingers distance from the fourth hole.

The length of a quray is about 510-810 millimeters. The diapason of a quray consists of three octaves. The quray is used as a solo as well as an ensemble instrument. Now, a quray can be made from veneer. It is more stable and its sound is similar to the natural quray's sound.

In addition to a grass quray some other types of quray are known:

sor-quray - a sort of quray made by the Bashkirs who lived in the steppe where the natural quray does not grow. It is made of steppe grass and its length is not more than one meter, but it is wider in its diameter. The specialists say it was used for calling signals.
copper quraq - a quray made from copper. However, specialists disapprove of using this kind of quray, because it is harmful for the health.

The names of outstanding quray-players-improvisers include Kubagush-sasan, Baik-sasan, I. Murzakaev, G. Arginbaev, Y. Icyanbaev, I. Dilmukhametov, G. Suleymanov, K. Diyarov, R. Rakhimov, Y. Gaynetdinov and A. Aitkulov.

There are many quray performers: laureates and diploma-winners of International Musical Folk Festivals, International Students' and Youth Festivals and all-Russian contests of performers of rare musical instruments.

There is a picture of a quray flower on the national flag and Bashkortostan state emblem.

6. Thongophone

A thongophone is a musical instrument classified as a percussion instrument. Playing the thongophone is somewhat rare in Western music for solo performance, but was brought to prominence by the music of Yanni and Blue Man Group, among others. Thongophones are found in rural Papua New Guinea.

The thongophone produces sound by striking a rubber clapper, usually a thong, hence its namesake, against the opening of one of many PVC pipes of varying length. Vibrations are transmitted through the hollow pipes, each one resonating to a preset pitch. The tubing system that allows the instrument to generate its sounds, resembles a pipe organ, which works on the same principle; however, the resonance is generated using a more direct method. In standard thongophones, there is a standard pitch designated for each tube; however the variable pitch thongophone, or Drumbone, was made widely known due to its use by Blue Man Group, as seen in the Intel Pentium 4 commercials. The thongophone can also be played with the use of drumsticks, or virtually any other solid stick-like object to create resonance in the tube.

On the instrument, one end of each pipe is set up to resemble the layout of a standard piano in that the natural notes are at the front, C, D, E, F, G, A, B and so on, with the Accidental notes, C♯/D♭, E♭/D♯, F♯/G♭, G♯/A♭ and B♭/A♯ above them in groups of 2 and 3, just as in a piano, or as would be more visually acute, a xylophone.

Zoomusicology - music

Thu, 25 Feb 2010 08:55:08 +0100

Zoomusicology

Zoomusicology is a field of musicology and zoology or more specifically, zoosemiotics. Zoomusicology is the study of the music of animals, or rather the musical aspects of sound or communication produced and received by animals.

Zoomusicology may be distinguished from ethnomusicology, the study of human music. Zoomusicology is most often biomusicological, and biomusicology is often zoomusicological.

Background

Ibn al-Haytham's Treatise on the Influence of Melodies on the Souls of Animals in the 11th century was the earliest treatise dealing with the effects of music on animals. In the treatise, he demonstrates how a camel's pace could be hastened or retarded with the use of music, and shows other examples of how music can affect animal behaviour and animal psychology, experimenting with horses, birds and reptiles. Through to the 19th century, a majority of scholars in the Western world continued to believe that music was a distinctly human phenomenon, but experiments since then have vindicated Ibn al-Haytham's view that music does indeed have an effect on animals.^[1]

Zoomusicologist Dario Martinelli describes the subject of zoomusicology as the "aesthetic use of sound communication among animals." George Herzog (1941) asked, "do animals have music?" François-Bernard Mâche's Musique, mythe, nature, ou les Dauphins d'Arion (1983), includes a study of "ornitho-musicology" using a technique of Nicolas Ruwet's Langage, musique, poésie (1972), paradigmatic segmentation analysis, shows that bird songs are organized according to a repetition-transformation principle. One purpose of the book was to “begin to speak of animal musics other than with the quotation marks” (Mâche 1992: 114), and he is credited by Dario Martinelli with the creation of zoomusicology ([1]).

Animal music

In the opinion of Jean-Jacques Nattiez (1990), "in the last analysis, it is a human being who decides what is and is not musical, even when the sound is not of human origin. If we acknowledge that sound is not organized and conceptualized (that is, made to form music) merely by its producer, but by the mind that perceives it, then music is uniquely human." According to Mâche, "If it turns out that music is a wide spread phenomenon in several living species apart from man, this will very much call into question the definition of music, and more widely that of man and his culture, as well as the idea we have off the animal itself." (Mâche 1992: 95)

In music

Shinji Kanki composes music for dolphins according to conventions found in dolphin music or found to please dolphins in his Music for Dolphins (Ultrasonic Improvisational Composition) for underwater ultrasonic loudspeakers (2001).

Composers have evoked or imitated animal sounds in compositions including Jean-Philippe Rameau's The Hen (1728), Camille Saint-Saëns's Carnival of the Animals (1886), Olivier Messiaen's Catalogue of the Birds (1956-58) and Pauline Oliveros's El Relicario de los Animales (1977) [cf. Von Gunden 1983, p.133]. Other examples include Alan Hovhaness's And God Created Great Whales (1970), George Crumb's Vox Balaenae (Voice of the Whale) (1971) and Gabriel Pareyon's Invention over the song of the Vireo atriccapillus (1999) and Kha Pijpichtli Kuikatl (2003).

The icaros (sacred healing songs and chants) sung by ayahuasca healers, or shamanic practitioners, among Amazonian tribes are evocative of many of the sounds of birds, animals and insects of the jungle.

music recording sales certification - music

Thu, 25 Feb 2010 09:09:35 +0100

Music recording sales certification

A gold record for The Beatles' "Hey Jude"

Music recording sales certification is a system of certifying that a music recording has shipped a certain number of copies.

Almost all countries follow variations of the RIAA certification categories, which are named after the precious materials gold, platinum and diamond (silver is also used in some countries). The number of sales required for these awards varies depending on the population of the territory in which the album is released. Normally they are awarded only to albums released at least nationally and are awarded individually for each country in which the album is sold. Additionally, different sales levels may exist for different music media, such as albums, singles, or videos.

Originally applied to LP records, certification is now most commonly awarded for compact disc sales. Certification is usually awarded cumulatively, and it is possible for a single album to be certified silver, gold, and platinum in turn. An album that becomes platinum at least twice over is said to be "multi platinum". Artists can also become multi-platinum sellers if they have at least two albums in the same territory both going single platinum—therefore meaning that they do not have an individual album selling these amounts.

History

The original Gold Record awards were presented to artists by their own record companies to publicize the achievement of 1,000,000 sales. The first of these was awarded by RCA to Glenn Miller in February 1942, celebrating 1,200,000 sales of "Chattanooga Choo Choo". Another example of a company award is the gold record awarded to Elvis Presley in 1956 for 1,000,000 sales of the single "Don't Be Cruel." The first gold record for an LP was awarded by RCA to Harry Belafonte in 1957 for the album Calypso (1956), the first album to sell over 1,000,000 copies.

RIAA certification

Main article: RIAA certification

Several different thresholds have been in use at different times and places for both album and single awards. Some of these were based on units sold and others on the value of retail sales. The first official designation of a "gold record" by the RIAA was established for singles in 1958, and the RIAA also trademarked the term "gold record" in the United States. On March 14, 1958 the RIAA certified Perry Como's hit single "Catch a Falling Star" as its first-ever gold record, and the Oklahoma! soundtrack was certified as the first gold album four months later. In 1976, RIAA introduced the platinum certification, first awarded to Johnnie Taylor's "Disco Lady" (single) and the Eagles' Their Greatest Hits (1971–1975) (album).^[1]

Like many record industry awards and rankings, the measurement is usually based on wholesale shipments to all types of retail outlets, not actual retail sales or financial transactions. This means that an early award or ranking for a new release reflects a distributor's expectations for the album and their market power.

Certifications no longer apply solely to physical media, and are now bestowed upon songs used in different ways. In June 2006, the RIAA certified 84 songs as gold winners for ringtone downloads, 40 as platinum and 4 as multiplatinum.^[2]

IFPI certification

The International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI) awards the IFPI Platinum Europe Award for album sales over one million within Europe and (as of October 2009) the Middle East.^[3] Multi-platinum Europe Awards are presented for sales in subsequent multiples of a million. The award, which was inaugurated in 1996, is not restricted to European group artists. Time is not a factor for an album to reach platinum.

List of international sales certification thresholds

Main article: List of music recording sales certifications

Manufacture of awards

The plaques themselves contain various items under the glass. Modern awards often use CDs instead of records. Most gold and platinum records are actually vinyl records dipped (or otherwise coated) in fine metallic paint, while trimmed and plated metal "masters", "mothers", or "stampers" (metal parts used for pressing records out of vinyl) were initially used. Rarely does the groove on the record match the actual recording being awarded. Individual plaque-makers produced their awards according to available materials and individual techniques employed by their graphic arts departments. The plaques, depending on size and elaborateness of design, cost anywhere between US$135 and $275, most often ordered and purchased by the record label that issued the original recording.

References

^ "History Of The Awards". RIAA.com. http://www.riaa.com/goldandplatinum.php?content_selector=historyx. Retrieved 2008-12-11.
^ Associated Press (June 14, 2006). "RIAA Certifies Ringtones as Gold, Platinum". FoxNews.com. http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,199539,00.html. Retrieved December 28, 2009.
^ "IFPI Awards". International Federation of the Phonographic Industry. http://www.ifpi.org/content/section_news/ifpi_awards.html. Retrieved 21 December 2009.

External links

music theraphy - music

Thu, 25 Feb 2010 09:06:04 +0100

Music Therapy

Music therapy is both an allied health profession and a field of scientific research which studies correlations between the process of clinical therapy and biomusicology, musical acoustics, music theory, psychoacoustics and comparative musicology. It is an interpersonal process in which a trained music therapist uses music and all of its facets—physical, emotional, mental, social, aesthetic, and spiritual—to help clients to improve or maintain their health. Music therapists primarily help clients improve their observable level of functioning and self-reported quality of life in various domains (e.g., cognitive functioning, motor skills, emotional and affective development, behavior and social skills) by using music experiences (e.g., singing, songwriting, listening to and discussing music, moving to music) to achieve measurable treatment goals and objectives. Referrals to music therapy services may be made by a treating physician or an interdisciplinary team consisting of clinicians such as physicians, psychologists, physical therapists, and occupational therapists.

Music therapists are found in nearly every area of the helping professions. Some commonly found practices include developmental work (communication, motor skills, etc.) with individuals with special needs, songwriting and listening in reminiscence/orientation work with the elderly, processing and relaxation work, and rhythmic entrainment for physical rehabilitation in stroke victims.

The Turco-Persian psychologist and music theorist al-Farabi (872–950), known as "Alpharabius" in Europe, dealt with music therapy in his treatise Meanings of the Intellect, where he discussed the therapeutic effects of music on the soul.^[1] Robert Burton wrote in the 17th century in his classic work, The Anatomy of Melancholy, that music and dance were critical in treating mental illness, especially melancholia.^[2]^[3]^[4]

It is considered one of the expressive therapies.

Forms

There are a few different philosophies of thought regarding the foundations of Music Therapy. One is based on education and two are based on music therapy itself, both of which will only be briefly covered here. In addition, there are philosophies based on psychology, and one based on neuroscience.

Different approaches from education are Orff-Schulwerk (Orff), Dalcroze Eurhythmics, and Kodaly. The two philosophies that developed directly out of music therapy are Nordoff-Robbins and the Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and Music. ^[5]

Music therapists work many times with individuals who have behavioral-emotional disorders. To meet the needs of this population, music therapists have taken current psychological theories and used them as a basis for different types of music therapy. Different models include behavioral therapy, cognitive behavioral therapy, and psychodynamic therapy.^[6]

The therapy model based on neuroscience is called Neurological Music Therapy (NMT). A definition of NMT is "NMT is based on a neuroscience model of music perception and production, and the influence of music on functional changes in nonmusical brain and behavior functions."^[7] In other words, NMT studies how the brain is without music, how the brain is with music, measures the differences, and uses these differences to cause changes in the brain through music that will eventually effect the client non-musically. As internationally known professor and researcher Dr. Thaut said, "The brain that engages in music is changed by engaging in music."^[8]

In the United States

Music therapy has existed in its common current form in the United States since around 1944, when the first undergraduate degree program in the world was founded at Michigan State University and the first graduate degree program at the University of Kansas. The American Music Therapy Association (AMTA) was founded in 1998 as a merger between the National Association for Music Therapy (NAMT, founded in 1950) and the American Association for Music Therapy (AAMT, founded in 1971). Numerous other national organizations exist, such as the Institute for Music and Neurologic Function, Nordoff-Robbins Center For Music Therapy and The Bonny Foundation. In the United States, a music therapist is most commonly designated by MT-BC (Music Therapist-Board Certified). A music therapist may use ideas or concepts from different disciplines such as speech/language, physical therapy, medicine, nursing, education, and so forth.

A music therapist may have different credentials or professional licenses and may also have a master's degree in music therapy or in another clinical field (social work, mental health counseling, or the like). New York State requires that people holding the title music therapist be licensed as a creative arts therapist by holding a master's degree or higher in the field. Other masters degree holders may also take a test administered by the state of New York. Some practicing music therapists have held Ph.D.s in non-music-therapy (but related) areas, but more recently Temple University and Lesley University have founded a true music therapy Ph.D. program. A music therapist will typically practice in a manner that incorporates music therapy techniques with broader clinical practices such as assessment, diagnosis, psychotherapy, rehabilitation, and other practices depending on population. Music therapy services rendered within the context of a social service, educational, or health care agency are reimbursable by insurance and sources of funding for individuals with certain needs, under the title of Activity Therapy. Music therapy services have been identified as reimbursable under Medicaid, Medicare, Private insurance plans and other services such as state departments and government programs.

A US music therapist may also hold the designation of CMT, ACMT, or RMT—initials which were previously conferred by the now-defunct AAMT and NAMT. More current music therapists hold the designation, MT-BC, music therapist-board certified, given by the Certification Board of Music Therapists. A degree in music therapy requires proficiency in guitar, piano, voice, music theory, music history, reading music, improvisation, as well as varying levels of skill in assessment, documentation, and other counseling and health care skills depending on the focus of the particular university's program.

To become board-certified in the United States, a music therapist must complete course work at an accredited ATMA program at a college or university, successfully complete a 1040 hour Music Therapy internship, and pass the Certifying Board examination. Board Certified Music Therapists are required to maintain their education through continuing education courses, called Continuing Music Therapy Education courses, or CMTEs. These classes fall under the purview of the Certification Board for Music Therapists to assure quality and applicability. They are offered at the state, regional, and national level.

In the United Kingdom

Live music was used in hospitals after both of the World Wars, as part of the regime for some recovering soldiers. Clinical Music therapy in Britain as it is understood today was pioneered in the 60s and 70s by French cellist Juliette Alvin, whose influence on the current generation of British music therapy lecturers remains strong. Mary Priestley, one of Juliette Alvin's students came to discover/create Analytical Music Therapy. Analytical Music Therapy is a form of Music Therapy which together with the Nordoff-Robbins school of Music Therapy, form the two central forms of Music Therapy used today. Mary Priestley's books: Music Therapy in Action, first published by Constable and company 1975 (ISBN 0 09 459900 9) and Essays on Analytical Music Therapy, Barcelona Publishers ©1994.(ISBN 0-9624080-2-6) Form part of the core course work for students of Analytical Music Therapy all over the world.

The Nordoff-Robbins approach to music therapy developed from the work of Paul Nordoff and Clive Robbins in the 1950/60s. It is grounded in the belief that everyone can respond to music, no matter how ill or disabled. The unique qualities of music as therapy can enhance communication, support change, and enable people to live more resourcefully and creatively. Nordoff-Robbins now run music therapy sessions throughout the UK, US, South Africa, Australia and Germany. Its head quarters are in London where it also provides training and further education programmes, including the only PhD course in music therapy available in the UK. Music therapists, many of whom work with an improvisatory model (see clinical improvisation), are active particularly in the fields of child and adult learning disability, but also in psychiatry and forensic psychiatry, geriatrics, palliative care and other areas.

Practitioners are registered with the Health Professions Council [3] and from 2007 new regisrants must normally hold a masters degree in music therapy. There are masters level programmes in music therapy in Bristol, Cambridge, Cardiff, Edinburgh and London, and there are therapists throughout the United Kingdom. The professional body in the UK is the Association of Professional Music Therapists [4] while the British Society for Music Therapy [5] is a charity providing information about music therapy.

In 2002, the World Congress of Music Therapy was held in Oxford, on the theme of Dialogue and Debate. ^[9] In November 2006, Dr. Michael J. Crawford ^[10] and his colleagues again found that music therapy helped the outcomes of Schizophrenic patients. ^[11]^[12] In 2009, he and his team were researching the usefulness of improvisational music in helping patients with agitation and also those with Dementia.

As stroke therapy

Music has been shown to affect portions of the brain. Part of this therapy is the ability of music to affect emotions and social interactions. Research by Nayak et al. showed that music therapy is associated with a decrease in depression, improved mood, and a reduction in state anxiety^[13]. Both descriptive and experimental studies have documented effects of music on quality of life, involvement with the environment, expression of feelings, awareness and responsiveness, positive associations, and socialization ^[14]. Additionally, Nayak et al. found that music therapy had a positive effect on social and behavioral outcomes and showed some encouraging trends with respect to mood.^[13]

More recent research suggests that music can increase patient’s motivation and positive emotions. ^[13]^[15]^[16] Current research also suggests that when music therapy is used in conjunction with traditional therapy it improves success rates significantly.^[17]^[18]^[19] Therefore, it is hypothesized that music therapy helps stroke victims recover faster and with more success by increasing the patient’s positive emotions and motivation, allowing them to be more successful and driven to participate in traditional therapies.

Research has shown the ability of music therapy to increase positive social interactions, positive emotions, and motivation in stroke patients. Wheeler et al. found that group music therapy sessions increased the ease at which stroke patients responded to social interaction and increased positive attitude reports from patient families, while individual sessions helped to motivate patients for treatment^[16]. Another study examined the effect of music therapy on mood of stroke patients and found similar results that showed decreased anxiety, fatigue, and hostile mood states ^[15]. Additionally, Nayak et al. found improved social interaction (more actively involved and cooperative) when music therapy was used in stroke recovery programs^[13].

Recent studies have examined the effect of music therapy on stroke patients, when combined with traditional therapy. One study found the incorporation of music with therapeutic upper extremity exercises gave patients more positive emotional effects than exercise alone.^[17] In another study, Nayak et al. found that rehabilitation staff rated participants in the music therapy group were more actively involved and cooperative in therapy than those in the control group.^[13] Their findings gave preliminary support to the efficacy of music therapy as a complementary therapy for social functioning and participation in rehabilitation with a trend toward improvement in mood during acute rehabilitation.

Although positive changes have been associated with music therapy, some considerations must be taken into account. While scientists have determined that a variety of physiological and psychological changes occur when listening to music, broad conclusions cannot yet be made concerning the relationship and the direction of the relationship between music and emotion.^[20] Additionally, there may be mediating factors which affect the success of music therapy. For example, Nayak et al. found the more impaired an individual’s social behavior was at the outset of treatment, the more likely he or she was to benefit from music therapy.^[13] Additionally, they noted the effectiveness of music therapy may be moderated by the time frame of the treatment. It is possible that music therapy has a more pronounced effect on mood the closer to injury it is applied.

Current research shows that when music therapy is used in conjunction with traditional therapy, it improves rates of recovery, and emotional and social deficits resulting from stroke. ^[13]^[17]^[18]^[19]^[21]^[22] A study by Jeong & Kim examined the impact of music therapy when combined with traditional stroke therapy in a community-based rehabilitation program. ^[21] Thirty-three stroke survivors were randomized into one of two groups: the experimental group, which combined rhythmic music and specialized rehabilitation movement for eight weeks; and a control group, that received referral information for traditional therapy (and were assumed to have sought traditional therapy). The results of this study showed that participants in the experimental group gained more flexibility, wider range of motion, more positive moods, and increased frequency and quality of social interactions.^[21]

Music has also been used in recovery of motor skills. Rhythmical auditory stimulation in a musical context in combination with traditional gait therapy improved the ability of stroke patients to walk.^[18] The study consisted of two treatment conditions, one which received traditional gait therapy and another which received the gait therapy in combination with the rhythmical auditory stimulation. During the rhythmical auditory stimulation, stimulation was played back measure by measure, and was initiated by the patient’s heel-strikes. Each condition received fifteen sessions of therapy. The results revealed that the rhythmical auditory stimulation group showed more improvement in stride length, symmetry deviation, walking speed and rollover path length (all indicators for improved walking gait) than the group that received traditional therapy alone.^[18]

Schneider et al. also studied the effects of combining music therapy with standard motor rehabilitation methods^[19]. In this experiment, researchers recruited stroke patients without prior musical experience and trained half of them in an intensive step by step training program that occurred fifteen times over three weeks, in addition to traditional treatment. These participants were trained to use fine both fine and gross motor movements by learning how to use the piano and drums. The other half of the patients received only traditional treatment over the course of the three weeks. Three-dimensional movement analysis and clinical motor tests showed participants who received the additional music therapy had significantly better speed, precision, and smoothness of movements as compared to the control subjects. Participants who received music therapy also showed a significant improvement in every-day motor activities as compared to the control group ^[19]. Wilson, Parsons, & Reutens looked at the effect of melodic intonation therapy (MIT) on speech production in a male singer with severe Broca’s aphasia^[22]. In this study, thirty novel phrases were taught in three conditions: unrehearsed, rehearsed verbal production (repetition), or rehearsed verbal production with melody (MIT). Results showed that phrases taught in the MIT condition had superior production, and that compared to rehearsal, effects of MIT lasted longer.

Another study examined the incorporation of music with therapeutic upper extremity exercises on pain perception in stroke victims ^[17]. Over the course of eight weeks, stroke victims participated in upper extremity exercises (of the hand, wrist, and shoulder joints) in conjunction with one of the three conditions: song, karaoke accompaniment, and no music. Patients participated in each condition once, according to a randomized order, and rated their perceived pain immediately after the session. Results showed that although there was no significant difference in pain rating across the conditions, video observations revealed more positive affect and verbal responses while performing upper extremity exercises with both music and karaoke accompaniment ^[17]. Nayak et al. ^[13] examined the combination of music therapy with traditional stroke rehabilitation and also found the addition of music therapy improved mood and social interaction. Participants who had suffered traumatic brain injury or stroke were placed in one of two conditions: standard rehabilitation or standard rehabilitation along with music therapy. Participants received three treatments per week for up to ten treatments. Therapists found that participants who received music therapy in conjunction with traditional methods had improved social interaction and mood.

In heart disease

Some music may reduce heart rate, respiratory rate, and blood pressure in patients with coronary heart disease, according to a 2009 Cochrane review of 23 clinical trials [6]. Benefits included a decrease in blood pressure, heart rate, and levels of anxiety in heart patients. However, the effect was not consistent across studies, according to Joke Bradt, Ph.D., and Cheryl Dileo, Ph.D., both of Temple University in Philadelphia. Music did not appear to have much effect on patients' psychological distress. "The quality of the evidence is not strong and the clinical significance unclear," the reviewers cautioned. In 11 studies patients were having cardiac surgery and procedures, in nine they were MI patients, and in three cardiac rehabilitation patients. The 1,461 participants were largely white (average 85%) and male (67%). In most studies, patients listened to one 30-minute music session. Only two used a trained music therapist instead of prerecorded music.

In epilepsy

Research suggests that listening to Mozart´s piano sonata K448 can reduce the number of seizures in people with epilepsy.^[23] This has been called the "Mozart effect".

Experimental approaches

Music therapist, music researcher and experimental composer Enrico Curreri clinically explored various theories and concepts developed by the American composer John Cage. For example, in various music therapy sessions with a patient diagnosed with depression and anxiety disorder, Curreri performed Cage’s seminal composition of silence 4 33 and utilized aleatoric/chance procedures.^[24] Moreover, Curreri has been clinically investigating experimental music/sound/noise music, free improvisation and microtonal music to help assist in understanding the many humanistic and transpersonal psychophysiological variables of the therapeutic process.

Notable practitioners and authors

Al-Farabi
Juliette Alvin
Helen Bonny
E. Thayer Gaston
Paul Nordoff and Clive Robbins of Nordoff-Robbins
Mary Priestley
Concetta M. Tomaino
Dr.Bhaskar Khandekar India's First Music Therapist www.indiasfirst.com

music

Thu, 25 Feb 2010 09:20:57 +0100

Music

A painting on an Ancient Greek vase depicts a music lesson (ca. 510 BC).

Music is an art form whose medium is sound. Common elements of music are pitch (which governs melody and harmony), rhythm (and its associated concepts tempo, meter, and articulation), dynamics, and the sonic qualities of timbre and texture. The word derives from Greek μουσική (mousike), "(art) of the Muses".^[1]

The creation, performance, significance, and even the definition of music vary according to culture and social context. Music ranges from strictly organized compositions (and their recreation in performance), through improvisational music to aleatoric forms. Music can be divided into genres and subgenres, although the dividing lines and relationships between music genres are often subtle, sometimes open to individual interpretation, and occasionally controversial. Within "the arts", music may be classified as a performing art, a fine art, and auditory art.

To many people in many cultures music is an important part of their way of life. Greek philosophers and ancient Indian philosophers defined music as tones ordered horizontally as melodies and vertically as harmonies. Common sayings such as "the harmony of the spheres" and "it is music to my ears" point to the notion that music is often ordered and pleasant to listen to. However, 20th-century composer John Cage thought that any sound can be music, saying, for example, "There is no noise, only sound."^[2] According to musicologist Jean-Jacques Nattiez, "the border between music and noise is always culturally defined—which implies that, even within a single society, this border does not always pass through the same place; in short, there is rarely a consensus.... By all accounts there is no single and intercultural universal concept defining what music might be, except that it is 'sound through time'."^[3]

History

Main article: History of music

Prehistoric eras

Ancient music can only be imagined by scholars, based on findings from a range of paleolithic sites, such as bones in which lateral holes have been pierced: these are usually identified as flutes,^[4] blown at one end like the Japanese shakuhachi. Instruments, such as the seven-holed flute and various types of stringed instruments have been recovered from the Indus Valley Civilization archaeological sites.^[5] India has one of the oldest musical traditions in the world—references to Indian classical music (marga) can be found in the ancient scriptures of the Hindu tradition, the Vedas.^[6] The earliest and largest collection of prehistoric musical instruments was found in China and dates back to between 7000 and 6600 BC.^[7]

References in the Bible

Main article: History of music in the biblical period

"David with his harp" Paris Psalter,
c. 960, Constantinople

Music and theatre scholars studying the history and anthropology of Semitic and early Judeo-Christian culture, have also discovered common links between theatrical and musical activity in the classical cultures of the Hebrews with those of the later cultures of the Greeks and Romans. The common area of performance is found in a "social phenomenon called litany," a form of prayer consisting of a series of invocations or supplications. The Journal of Religion and Theatre notes that among the earliest forms of litany, "Hebrew litany was accompanied by a rich musical tradition:"^[8]

"While Genesis 4.21 identifies Jubal as the “father of all such as handle the harp and pipe,” the Pentateuch is nearly silent about the practice and instruction of music in the early life of Israel. Then, in I Samuel 10 and the texts which follow, a curious thing happens. “One finds in the biblical text,” writes Alfred Sendrey, “a sudden and unexplained upsurge of large choirs and orchestras, consisting of thoroughly organized and trained musical groups, which would be virtually inconceivable without lengthy, methodical preparation.” This has led some scholars to believe that the prophet Samuel was the patriarch of a school which taught not only prophets and holy men, but also sacred-rite musicians. This public music school, perhaps the earliest in recorded history, was not restricted to a priestly class--which is how the shepherd boy David appears on the scene as a minstrel to King Saul."^[8]

Antiquity

Music was an important part of cultural and social life in Ancient Greece: mixed-gender choruses performed for entertainment, celebration and spiritual ceremonies; musicians and singers had a prominent role in ancient Greek theater.^[9] In the 9th century, the Arab scholar al-Farabi wrote a book on music titled Kitab al-Musiqi al-Kabir ("Great Book of Music"). He played and invented a variety of musical instruments and devised the Arab tone system of pitch organisation, which is still used in Arabic music.^[10]

Western cultures

During the Medieval music era (500-1400), the only European repertory which has survived from before about 800 is the monophonic liturgical plainsong of the Roman Catholic Church, the central tradition of which was called Gregorian chant. Alongside these traditions of sacred and church music there existed a vibrant tradition of secular song. Examples of composers from this period are Léonin, Pérotin and Guillaume de Machaut. From the Renaissance music era (1400-1600), much of the surviving music of 14th century Europe is secular. By the middle of the 15th century, composers and singers used a smooth polyphony for sacred musical compositions. The introduction of commercial printing helped to disseminate musical styles more quickly and across a larger area. Prominent composers from this era are Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina, Thomas Morley and Orlande de Lassus.

Allegory of Music, by Filippino Lippi

The era of Baroque music (1600-1750) began when the first operas were written and when contrapuntal music became prevalent. German Baroque composers wrote for small ensembles including strings, brass, and woodwinds, as well as choirs, pipe organ, harpsichord, and clavichord. During the Baroque period, several major music forms were defined that lasted into later periods when they were expanded and evolved further, including the fugue, the invention, the sonata, and the concerto.^[11] Composers from the Baroque era include Johann Sebastian Bach, George Frideric Handel and Georg Philipp Telemann. The music of the Classical period (1750-1800) is characterized by homophonic texture, often featuring a prominent melody with accompaniment. These new melodies tended to be almost voice-like and singable. The now popular instrumental music was dominated by further evolution of musical forms initially defined in the Baroque period: the sonata, and the concerto, with the addition of the new form, the symphony. Joseph Haydn and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart are among the central figures of the Classical period.

In 1800, the Romantic era (1800-1890s) in music developed, with Ludwig van Beethoven and Franz Schubert as transitional composers who introduced a more dramatic, expressive style. During this era, existing genres, forms, and functions of music were developed, and the emotional and expressive qualities of music came to take precedence over technique and tradition. In Beethoven's case, motifs (developed organically) came to replace melody as the most significant compositional unit. The late 19th century saw a dramatic expansion in the size of the orchestra, and in the role of concerts as part of urban society. Later Romantic composers such as Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky and Gustav Mahler created complex and often much longer musical works. They used more complex chords and used more dissonance to create dramatic tension.

Non-Western Classical traditions

Indian classical music is one of the oldest musical traditions in the world.^[12] The Indus Valley civilization has sculptures which show dance^[13] and old musical instruments, like the seven holed flute. Various types of stringed instruments and drums have been recovered from Harrappa and Mohenjo Daro by excavations carried out by Sir Mortimer Wheeler.^[14] The Rigveda has elements of present Indian music, with a musical notation to denote the metre and the mode of chanting.^[15] Indian classical music (marga) is monophonic, and based around a single melody line or raga rhythmically organized through talas. Carnatic music is largely devotional; the majority of the songs are addressed to the Hindu deities. There are a lot of songs emphasising love and other social issues. Hindustani music was also influenced by the Persian performance practices of the Afghan Mughals.

Asian music covers the music cultures of Arabia, Central Asia, East Asia, South Asia, and Southeast Asia. Chinese classical music, the traditional art or court music of China, has a history stretching over around three thousand years. It has its own unique systems of musical notation, as well as musical tuning and pitch, musical instruments and styles or musical genres. Chinese music is pentatonic-diatonic, having a scale of twelve notes to an octave (5+7 = 12) as does European-influenced music. Persian music is the music of Persia and Persian language countries: musiqi, the science and art of music, and muzik, the sound and performance of music (Sakata 1983). See also: Music of Iran, Music of Afghanistan, Music of Tajikistan, Music of Uzbekistan.

The music of Greece was a major part of ancient Greek theater. In Ancient Greece, mixed-gender choruses performed for entertainment, celebration and spiritual reasons. Instruments included the double-reed aulos and the plucked string instrument, the lyre, especially the special kind called a kithara. Music was an important part of education in ancient Greece, and boys were taught music starting at age six. Greek musical literacy created a flowering of development; Greek music theory included the Greek musical modes, eventually became the basis for Western religious music and classical music. Later, influences from the Roman Empire, Eastern Europe and the Byzantine Empire changed Greek music.

20th and 21st century music

Double bassist Reggie Workman, tenor saxophone player Pharoah Sanders, and drummer Idris Muhammad performing in 1978

With 20th century music, there was a vast increase in music listening as the radio gained popularity and phonographs were used to replay and distribute music. The focus of art music was characterized by exploration of new rhythms, styles, and sounds. Igor Stravinsky, Arnold Schoenberg, and John Cage were all influential composers in 20th century art music.

Jazz evolved and became a significant genre of music over the course of the 20th century, and during the second half of that century, rock music did the same. Jazz is an American musical art form which originated in the beginning of the 20th century in African American communities in the Southern United States from a confluence of African and European music traditions. The style's West African pedigree is evident in its use of blue notes, improvisation, polyrhythms, syncopation, and the swung note.^[16] From its early development until the present, jazz has also incorporated music from 19th and 20th century American popular music.^[17] Jazz has, from its early 20th century inception, spawned a variety of subgenres, ranging from New Orleans Dixieland (1910s) to 1970s and 1980s-era jazz-rock fusion.

Rock music is a genre of popular music that developed in the 1960s from 1950s rock and roll, rockabilly, blues, and country music. The sound of rock often revolves around the electric guitar or acoustic guitar, and it uses a strong back beat laid down by a rhythm section of electric bass guitar, drums, and keyboard instruments such as organ, piano, or, since the 1970s, digital synthesizers. Along with the guitar or keyboards, saxophone and blues-style harmonica are used as soloing instruments. In its "purest form", it "has three chords, a strong, insistent back beat, and a catchy melody."^[18] In the late 1960s and early 1970s, rock music branched out into different subgenres, ranging from blues rock and jazz-rock fusion to heavy metal and punk rock, as well as the more classical influenced genre of progressive rock.

Performance

Main article: Performance

Chinese Naxi musicians

Performance is the physical expression of music. Often, a musical work is performed once its structure and instrumentation are satisfactory to its creators; however, as it gets performed, it can evolve and change. A performance can either be rehearsed or improvised. Improvisation is a musical idea created without premeditation, while rehearsal is vigorous repetition of an idea until it has achieved cohesion. Musicians will sometimes add improvisation to a well-rehearsed idea to create a unique performance.

Many cultures include strong traditions of solo and performance, such as in Indian classical music, and in the Western Art music tradition. Other cultures, such as in Bali, include strong traditions of group performance. All cultures include a mixture of both, and performance may range from improvised solo playing for one's enjoyment to highly planned and organised performance rituals such as the modern classical concert, religious processions, music festivals or music competitions. Chamber music, which is music for a small ensemble with only a few of each type of instrument, is often seen as more intimate than symphonic works.

Aural tradition

Many types of music, such as traditional blues and folk music were originally preserved in the memory of performers, and the songs were handed down orally, or aurally (by ear). When the composer of music is no longer known, this music is often classified as "traditional". Different musical traditions have different attitudes towards how and where to make changes to the original source material, from quite strict, to those which demand improvisation or modification to the music. A culture's history may also be passed by ear through song.

Ornamentation

Main article: Ornament (music)

In a score or on a performer's music part, this sign indicates that the musician should perform a trill--a rapid alternation between two notes.

The detail included explicitly in the music notation varies between genres and historical periods. In general, art music notation from the 17th through the 19th century required performers to have a great deal of contextual knowledge about performing styles. For example, in the 17th and 18th century, music notated for solo performers typically indicated a simple, unornamented melody. However, it was expected that performers would know how to add stylistically-appropriate ornaments such as trills and turns. In the 19th century, art music for solo performers may give a general instruction such as to perform the music expressively, without describing in detail how the performer should do this. It was expected that the performer would know how to use tempo changes, accentuation, and pauses (among other devices) to obtain this "expressive" performance style. In the 20th century, art music notation often became more explicit and used a range of markings and annotations to indicate to performers how they should play or sing the piece.

In popular music and jazz, music notation almost always indicates only the basic framework of the melody, harmony, or performance approach; musicians and singers are expected to know the performance conventions and styles associated with specific genres and pieces. For example, the "lead sheet" for a jazz tune may only indicate the melody and the chord changes. The performers in the jazz ensemble are expected to know how to "flesh out" this basic structure by adding ornaments, improvised music, and chordal accompaniment.

Production

Main article: Music production

Jean-Gabriel Ferlan performing at a 2008 concert at the collège-lycée Saint-François Xavier

Music is composed and performed for many purposes, ranging from aesthetic pleasure, religious or ceremonial purposes, or as an entertainment product for the marketplace. Amateur musicians compose and perform music for their own pleasure, and they do not derive their income from music. Professional musicians are employed by a range of institutions and organisations, including armed forces, churches and synagogues, symphony orchestras, broadcasting or film production companies, and music schools. Professional musicians sometimes work as freelancers, seeking contracts and engagements in a variety of settings.

There are often many links between amateur and professional musicians. Beginning amateur musicians take lessons with professional musicians. In community settings, advanced amateur musicians perform with professional musicians in a variety of ensembles and orchestras. In some cases, amateur musicians attain a professional level of competence, and they are able to perform in professional performance settings. A distinction is often made between music performed for the benefit of a live audience and music that is performed for the purpose of being recorded and distributed through the music retail system or the broadcasting system. However, there are also many cases where a live performance in front of an audience is recorded and distributed (or broadcast).

Composition

Main article: Musical composition

An old songbook showing a composition

"Composition" is often classed as the creation and recording of music via a medium by which others can interpret it (i.e. paper or sound). Many cultures use at least part of the concept of preconceiving musical material, or composition, as held in western classical music. Even when music is notated precisely, there are still many decisions that a performer has to make. The process of a performer deciding how to perform music that has been previously composed and notated is termed interpretation. Different performers' interpretations of the same music can vary widely. Composers and song writers who present their own music are interpreting, just as much as those who perform the music of others or folk music. The standard body of choices and techniques present at a given time and a given place is referred to as performance practice, whereas interpretation is generally used to mean either individual choices of a performer, or an aspect of music which is not clear, and therefore has a "standard" interpretation.

In some musical genres, such as jazz and blues, even more freedom is given to the performer to engage in improvisation on a basic melodic, harmonic, or rhythmic framework. The greatest latitude is given to the performer in a style of performing called free improvisation, which is material that is spontaneously "thought of" (imagined) while being performed, not preconceived. Improvised music usually follows stylistic or genre conventions and even "fully composed" includes some freely chosen material. Composition does not always mean the use of notation, or the known sole authorship of one individual. Music can also be determined by describing a "process" which may create musical sounds; examples of this range from wind chimes, through computer programs which select sounds. Music which contains elements selected by chance is called Aleatoric music, and is associated with such composers as John Cage, Morton Feldman, and Witold Lutosławski.

Music can be composed for repeated performance or it can be improvised: composed on the spot. The music can be performed entirely from memory, from a written system of musical notation, or some combination of both. Study of composition has traditionally been dominated by examination of methods and practice of Western classical music, but the definition of composition is broad enough to include spontaneously improvised works like those of free jazz performers and African drummers such as the Ewe drummers.

What is important in understanding the composition of a piece is singling out its elements. An understanding of music's formal elements can be helpful in deciphering exactly how a piece is constructed. A universal element of music is how sounds occur in time, which is referred to as the rhythm of a piece of music. When a piece appears to have a changing time-feel, it is considered to be in rubato time, an Italian expression that indicates that the tempo of the piece changes to suit the expressive intent of the performer. Even random placement of random sounds, which occurs in musical montage, occurs within some kind of time, and thus employs time as a musical element.

Notation

Main article: Musical notation

Sheet music is written representation of music. This is a homorhythmic (i.e., hymn-style) arrangement of a traditional piece entitled Adeste Fideles, in standard two-staff format for mixed voices.

Notation is the written expression of music notes and rhythms on paper using symbols. When music is written down, the pitches and rhythm of the music is notated, along with instructions on how to perform the music. The study of how to read notation involves music theory, harmony, the study of performance practice, and in some cases an understanding of historical performance methods. Written notation varies with style and period of music. In Western Art music, the most common types of written notation are scores, which include all the music parts of an ensemble piece, and parts, which are the music notation for the individual performers or singers. In popular music, jazz, and blues, the standard musical notation is the lead sheet, which notates the melody, chords, lyrics (if it is a vocal piece), and structure of the music. Scores and parts are also used in popular music and jazz, particularly in large ensembles such as jazz "big bands."

In popular music, guitarists and electric bass players often read music notated in tablature (often abbreviated as "tab"), which indicates the location of the notes to be played on the instrument using a diagram of the guitar or bass fingerboard. Tabulature was also used in the Baroque era to notate music for the lute, a stringed, fretted instrument. Notated music is produced as sheet music. To perform music from notation requires an understanding of both the rhythmic and pitch elements embodied in the symbols and the performance practice that is associated with a piece of music or a genre.

Improvisation

Musical improvisation is the creation of spontaneous music. Improvisation is often considered an act of instantaneous composition by performers, where compositional techniques are employed with or without preparation. Improvisation is a major part of some types of music, such as blues, jazz, and jazz fusion, in which instrumental performers improvise solos and melody lines. In the Western art music tradition, improvisation was an important skill during the Baroque era and during the Classical era; solo performers and singers woul

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Improvisation in music therapy - music therapy

Improvisation in music therapy

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How improvisation fits into music therapy

Characteristics of improvisation in music therapy

Clinical goals of improvisation experiences

Improvisational methods and their variations

Basic therapeutic techniques

Integration of therapeutic methods

Rare Musical Instruments - Music

Rare Musical Instruments

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Types of hydraulophone and basic operation

Relationship to woodwind instruments

Hydraulophone embouchure

12-jet diatonic hydraulophones

45-jet chromatic hydraulophones (concert hydraulophones)

Cold weather hydraulophones

Relationship to other musical instruments in the orchestra

Classifications based on surrounding media

Relationship between hydraulophone and the "strings, percussion, wind" taxonomy

Relationship to the pipe organ

Relationship to the piano

Relationship to instruments that use other states of H2O

World's largest hydraulophone

Markings on standard 12-jet hydraulophone

Manufacturers

References and notes

5. Quray (flute)

6. Thongophone

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Zoomusicology

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Background

Animal music

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Music recording sales certification

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music theraphy - music

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Forms

In the United States

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History

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References in the Bible

Antiquity

Western cultures

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20th and 21st century music

Performance

Aural tradition

Relationship to instruments that use other states of H₂O